Taoism is a Chinese religious and philosophical tradition more than two thousand years old. It seeks to understand the Tao, or Dao according to modern Chinese transcription, meaning the “Way”: the deep principle through which the universe exists, changes and finds its balance. Taoism invites human beings to live in accordance with this Way rather than constantly trying to impose their will on the world.
The word Tao does not refer to a god in the usual sense of the term. It represents the fundamental reality from which all things arise and to which they belong. The Tao Te Ching (Daodejing), one of the tradition’s essential texts, whose title may be translated approximately as “Book of the Way and Virtue,” explains that the Tao cannot be fully defined in words. It is formless and invisible, yet it lies at the origin of existence and its transformations.
The Tao Te Ching is traditionally attributed to Lao Tzu, or Laozi, “the Old Master.” Tradition presents him as a sage of ancient China, but his historical existence has not been established with certainty. Ancient manuscripts show that different versions of the text were already circulating in the fourth century BCE and that the work probably took shape gradually.
Another fundamental text, the Zhuangzi, composed around the fourth and third centuries BCE, uses stories, dialogues and parables in particular to reflect on inner freedom, the limits of our certainties and the way to live in harmony with nature.
One of the best-known ideas in Taoism is wu wei, often translated as “non-action.” This does not mean remaining passive or doing nothing. Rather, it means not forcing things unnecessarily and acting in accordance with their natural movement. Water is often used as an image: it is flexible, does not struggle against obstacles, and yet eventually finds its way.
Another important concept is ziran, which may be translated as “naturalness” or “spontaneity.” Human beings move away from harmony when they make their existence excessively complicated or seek to control everything. Simplicity, flexibility and the ability to adapt are therefore important qualities in Taoist thought.
Taoism also shares with other Chinese traditions concepts such as yin and yang, two complementary aspects of reality. Night and day, rest and activity, inner and outer are not seen as forces that must necessarily eliminate one another: they respond to and continually transform into each other. Qi, often translated as “breath” or “vital energy,” refers to what animates and flows through living beings and the world.
But Taoism is not limited to these philosophical principles. Since antiquity, it has also existed as an organised religion, with priests, temples, rituals, sacred texts and numerous deities.
The distinction sometimes made in the West between an ancient “philosophical Taoism” and a later “religious Taoism” is today strongly qualified by scholars: the spiritual, ritual and philosophical dimensions developed together and continually influenced one another.
From the second century CE onward, the Celestial Masters emerged as one of the first major organised Taoist religious movements. According to tradition, it began in 142, when Zhang Daoling received a revelation from the deified Lao Tzu and was given the title “Celestial Master.” He then organised communities of believers in Sichuan under religious leaders, with moral rules, rituals and practices of purification and healing.
The title of Celestial Master was subsequently passed on to his successors, and this tradition played a major role in the formation of organised religious Taoism. Over the following centuries, different schools and lineages developed. Among those that still exist today are Zhengyi, whose many priests live within society and may marry, and Quanzhen, which has an important monastic tradition.
Taoist practices are highly diverse. They may include prayers, offerings, ceremonies in temples, purification rituals, meditation, breathing exercises or practices intended to cultivate the body and mind. Some priests also perform ceremonies to protect a community, accompany the dead or symbolically restore harmony between human beings, the deities and the cosmos.
Taoism indeed has a vast divine world. The Three Pure Ones occupy a particularly exalted place in many Taoist traditions. Other deities, immortals and sacred figures are honoured according to the school and region. Lao Tzu himself gradually came to be regarded as a divine manifestation in certain traditions.
Taoism has also always maintained close ties with Chinese popular religion, which sometimes makes it difficult to draw a precise boundary between the two.
The search for longevity and immortality has likewise played an important role in the history of Taoism. Taoists developed techniques of meditation, breathing and “inner alchemy” intended to transform the human being.
Taoist immortality, however, does not always mean living indefinitely in one’s ordinary physical body. Depending on the period and school, it may refer to a profound spiritual transformation, the acquisition of a spiritual body or access to a higher state of existence.
The idea of rebirth, and in some traditions reincarnation in a broad sense, also exists in Taoism. Some traditions hold that after death a person may be reborn into a new existence, on earth or in a celestial world. These ideas developed particularly from the first centuries CE onward, when Taoism and Buddhism influenced one another.
The Lingbao movement, which appeared around the fourth century, thus incorporated the idea that conduct and religious practices could lead to a more favourable rebirth. Reincarnation is not, however, a uniform belief throughout Taoism: other traditions place greater emphasis on transformation into an immortal, ascent to the heavens or union with the Tao.
Today, Taoism continues to be practised in China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Chinese communities in many countries. In the People’s Republic of China, it is one of the five religions officially recognised by the state, alongside Buddhism, Islam, Catholicism and Protestantism, although its religious organisation is subject to significant government control.
Taoism therefore does not impose a single creed to which all believers must adhere in the same way. Its different traditions above all share the idea that human beings belong to a living and changing world with which they must seek harmony.